Le mot lecture étymologiquement est emprunté du latin médiéval "lectura" qui signifie : lire, encourager, connaitre, trouver, utiliser, réussir et écrire. "La lecture est un processus très complexe qui consiste à mettre en relation des symboles orthographiques avec leur son (phonologie) et leur signification (sémantique)". (Van ZANTEN Agnès,2008). D'après yves Reuter, "la lecture est une pratique sociale, historiquement constituée, mettant en jeu des savoirs, des représentations, des investissements, des valeurs ainsi que des opérations physiques, psychologiques et cognitives complexes, visant à construire des sens en référence à un écrit.(Reuter, yves,2004) Si l'écrit épistolaire évoque un échange entre auteur et récepteur, si l'on admet qu'une intention de communication préside à toute production écrite, il est plus difficile de reconnaître que l'acte de lire représente un échange et implique de la part du lecteur, la recherche d'une communication. Une certaine conception de la lecture a longtemps prévalu en didactique des langues. Selon cette conception, le texte est le produit d'un auteur, produit sur la signification duquel le récepteur n'a pas à peser. Le lecteur reçoit ainsi le message fourni par le scripteur, ayant une attitude passive, parce que la lecture n'implique de sa part que la maîtrise du code dans lequel a été réalisé ce message, en somme, la maîtrise de la langue. 

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ملخص: لكل علم مفهوم يحدد مصطلحاته، وبالتالي المفاهيم اللازمة للفلسفة السياسية. إذا لم يكن من الممكن تطوير مفاهيم دقيقة ودقيقة ، فإن رؤانا واكتشافاتنا التجريبية ستفشل دائما في أن تكون دقيقة ودقيقة. لا تزال هذه الخيارات تشمل الحد الرئيسي لتحليل المفاهيم وكذلك التحديات الأساسية التي تواجه المفاهيم ، أي المفاهيم في دراسة السياسة.

This study had been performed in Sabratha area to assign some physical, chemical and biological characteristics for underground water and to find out its propriety for drinking. The study area was divided into ten locality: Dahman, Al- Khatatba, Aljabbar, Subratha center, Soug Al-Alalgah, Aldababshiah, Alnahdah, Tillil, Altunaibat, and Aggar. Forty eight samples of underground water has been collected in the study area. Five wells from each site were chosen except in Subratha center, where three wells were chosen. After performing the necessary analysis it became clear that the total dissolved salts concentration in 93.75% of the wells exceeded the allowable limit for drinking water, the highest was found to 4444.060 PPM in Tillil area, in addition to that, it was found that 81.25% of the wells, water, exceeded the allowable limits for sulpher concentration in drinking water. It was found that the concentration of the chloride (Cl ‾) exceeded the allowable limit for drinking water in 93.75 % of the wells, and the concentration of nitrite (NO2‾) exceeded the allowable limit in 8.3 % of the wells, while the concentration of nitrate ion ( NO3‾ ), in all wells were compatible with the Libyan and International specifications. The Calcium ion (Ca+2) exceeded the allowable limit in 87.5% of the wells. We can found also that, the concentration of magnesium element (Mg) exceeded the allowable limit in 79.1% of the wells. As for the sodium (Na+) concentration, it exceeded the allowable limit for drinking water in 95.8% of the wells, the highest was recorded in Sabratha center (7782 ppm). Some of the wells were polluted from the biological aspect, that was due to the contamination by sewage waters. In this study we found that, 39.58% of the well waters were polluted and not compatible to the international and Libyan standard specifications for drinking water, while we found that 60.41% of the wells were not polluted and were compatible with the standards. From the chemical aspect we found that, the most wells in the study area were not good for drinking, especially those located to the north, since they are near the sea and they merge with sea water . We also can notice that many of the wells were not good for drinking from the biological aspect, so we recommend to perform chemical and biological analysis before using the underground waters for domestic, agricultural and industrial objectives. Key words: Underground water, chemical pollution, biological pollution, Sabratha, Libya

Evapotranspiration calculation is an important matter due to agricultural reasons, but also for understanding water resources and runoff amount in a certain territory. Two CMIP5 multimodal projections (2011–2040 and 2041–2070) and land-cover pattern were used to analyse the seasonal and annual crop evapotranspiration trend in Turkey. The spatial distribution of crop evapotranspiration related to the initial season, mid-season, end season and cold season were computed through a geographical information system. The maximum crop evapotranspirations were found in the mid-season for present and future, with 1,072 and 1,241 mm respectively. For the future period, an increase in the spatial distribution of crop evapotranspiration was depicted in several places due to climate warming, mainly in the southern and southeastern areas of Turkey and on the Mediterranean coast. The minimum seasonal crop evapotranspirations fell to below 154 and 164 mm in the present and future respectively. The annual crop evapotranspiration increased from 1,675 to 1,944 mm from present to future and the significant values of absolute changes were identified in the western, eastern and southeastern regions of Turkey. The findings are useful for scientists in the climate, hydrology and agriculture fields, but also for management decisions.